Phenomenological Perspective And Theoretical Framework Sociology Essay

Phenomenological Perspective And Theoretical role model Sociology EssayThe aim in this chapter is to offer the foundations on which I stem turn my methodological approach and data analysis. In this section I on the wholeow for clarify sup give initious issues which I have essayd and informed my work. I abridgment a role model that highlights the interconnectedness of the macro and micro in explicating the pull by means ofs and policies of local anaesthetic government in implementing the renewed execute dealings approach. In this regard, the chapter covers a range of important issues and introduces a number of theoretical concepts relating to track coincidences and equating.For work of this sort to have gist it has to embody a inflexible conceptual analysis which beneathpin a critical guess approach.These definitions be located in a broader theory of oppression and intrinsic inequality and inequality.Below argon the concepts which have informed my approach, these concepts entrust allow me to interpret and understand the complex situation.Phenomenological perspectiveTo state that research doesnt happen in vacuum / isolation ack at presentledgement of historical and br differently influences testament limit the researchObjectivity/subjectivityPositionalityStructuration theoryThrough kindly stand forion that organizes and berth be shaped.Rejects Parsons functionalism subjectivityAnd in like manner hermeneutics approach on potencyHe argues his theory of structuration reveals how the micro (personal) is shaped by the macro (social systems) convey Positioning chapter in 1984 book.Social practices ordered across space and cartridge clip refer to the actions of roundones and classifys understood in their social, cultural and historical context. A name element of this theory, thitherfore, is the attempt to understand reality in calls of anatomical social prospect the signifi notifyce of social socio-economic classs and othe r aspects of social organisation and agency the operate of choice. period many another(prenominal) forms of social theory address either structure or agency, structuration theory is characterised by a counsel on structure and agency and the ship mien in which they are intertwined.In spirit the business leader to failicipate in community matters what is needed then is an appreciation of some(prenominal)(prenominal) structure and agency. It is not a matter of either or, nor is it an underemphasising of the role of agency by concentrating on the social structures to the almost total exclusion of issues of choices, intentions, wishes, fears and aspirations, or an overemphasising of the role of agency, failing to recognise the military group role of social structure in shaping, enabling and constraining the actions of individuals and groups. Our agency is cool offed in the complexities of social systems barely is not determined by them. Racism, unlikeness and oppression a re also imbedded in those social systems.PowerPower is a rudimentary feature of the struggle to promote social justice and equality. It is envisaged male monarch in this take aim allow for be played out in many ways. In a practical sense, it is the local government who holds the provide two with insurance and resources (staff, time, organisation, money), in this case the possessive party, to eliminate the inequalities faced by minority groups. Power analysis is effective in identifying resistance to commute as this does not rely solely on the While in the workings of organisations origin is transparent in the formal decision-making puzzle out, work by Hunter study of decision makers and places of net-working , Mills study of antecedent elite, Bachrach and Baratzs originator is,exercised by containing the scope of decision-making to relatively safe issues (p. 6). Steven Lukes (1974) common chord dimensional framework of reason identify other ways in which world-beate r may operate.In this study I am informed by Lukess three dimensional framework of power as it illuminates the different dimensions where power operates.Lukes theory is built on earlier theories on power which he addresses in his book Radical View. Dahls one dimensional model of power is conceived of as intentional and active in the policy-making arena by political actor groups, and power consists in defeating the opponents preferences. The focus is on decision-making behavior on issues where there is an noticeable conflict of subjective interests as revealed by policy preferences. Criticism of this mountain, is that power is not solo reflected in concrete decisions. Individuals open fire limit decision-making to non-controversial issues by keeping trustworthy topics off the agenda and argued that power should be psychoanalysed by dickens-dimensional model of power. According to Lukes, the two-dimensional charm of power is hold in that it foc hires only on observable con flicts, whether plain or covert.Lukes claims power screwing also by influencing, shaping, or ascertain his wants and preferences. Another instant criticism is that this view is too committed to behaviorism, that is to the study of concrete decisions, whereas inaction apprize also be the outcome of socially structured and culturally patterned corporal behavior. The third point on which this view is seen as inadequate is in its claim that non-decision-making power only exists where there are grievances which are denied entry into the political outgrowth in the form of issues. However, Lukes argues that power ignore be also exercised by preventing grievances by shaping perceptions and preferences in much(prenominal) a way as to in effect(p) the acceptance of the status quo since no alternative appears to exist, or becausal agency it is seen as raw(a) and unchangeable. This he refers to as the insidious/ lightless third dimension of power, through which the relatively power less(prenominal) came to internalise and accept their own condition, and therefore talent not be aware of nor act upon their interests in any observable way.Lukes third face of power was inspired by Gramscis ideas just more or less(predicate) hegemony and cause of consent as the means by which the willing compliance of workers is secured in capitalist societies. In practical scathe, Gramscis insights about how power is constituted in the realm of ideas and knowledge expressed through consent preferably than force. Lukes contrasts two meanings of hegemony the first as an unconscious psychological process that is cultural and internalised, and the chip a much conscious, wilful and coordinated strategy of domination.Hinson and Healey (2003, 4) further publish that Invisible power is exercised in part through control of the institutions that shape and create meaning ghostly institutions, the media, mass consumer socialisation, popular ideas about government, etceteraAltho ugh the concept of power is use, it is itself is highly contested. What accounts for the highly contested nature of the concept of power? wholeness explanation is that how we conceptualize power is shaped by the political and theoretical interests that we bring to the study of powerLukes 2005, p63. Some theorists define power as getting someone else to do what you want them to do (power-over) whereas others define it much than broadly as an ability or a capacity to act (power-to). Many very important analyses of power in political science, sociology, and philosophical system presuppose the former definition of power (power-over).As Steven Lukes notes, Dahls one-dimensional view of power, Bachrach and Baratzs two-dimensional view, and his own three-dimensional view are all variations of the aforementioned(prenominal) underlying conception of power, according to which A exercises power over B when A affects B in a manner contrary to Bs interests (1974, 30). Similarly, provided f rom a very different theoretical background, Michel Foucaults highly important analysis presupposes that power is a kind of power-over and he ascribes it, if we speak of the structures or the mechanisms of power, it is only insofar as we suppose that certain persons exercise power over others (1983, 217). Feminists refer to this kind of relation as a circumstantial kind of power-over relation, namely, one that is unjust and oppressive, they also refer to this kind of relation as oppression, patriarchy, subjection, and domination to those over whom power is exercised, this oppressive power will be discussed below.For the above section should I include Huner and Mills ways in which way power is utilize to manage sight , usance and coercion see separate document how power works introductionwide effects localWhile this is local community study, I am drawing upon the study of international developmental work by Gaventa and colleagues. Firstly, they controvert that effects of glo balisation have changed the spatial relations of power, therefore, power increasely should be understood not only at the local, national or the global level, but also in their inter-relationships p4 (ESRC undated). The ripple effects of 9/11 in the US and the increase in Islamophobia, the renewed rush relations butt be seen in this context.Places where power is heldAlthough in the ultimo it was the local government who controlled and made the decisions in the city and neighbourhoods, governance is now characterised by multiple intersecting actors, arenas and networks. The decision making arenas in which power may be found have become increasingly much varied and porous. Especially with the increase in arms-length-companies, social enterprises (joint private and human organisms projects). Therefore attention to the decision-making in such spaces require equal focus in the study of power and decision makers. Who says they have become more porous?GaventaThere are different approac hes to understanding and analysing power, I will use the powercube approach offered by by Gaventa and team which is found on Lukes three faces dimensions of power three faces.The power cube is an analytical device, which john be used along with other approaches to reflect on and analyse how strategies for change in turn change power relationsThe approach, veritable over the years is by and large based on studies of community groups based in southern hemisphere. The theoretical approach grew originally as a way of exploring how powerful actors control the agenda through and the ability of less powerful actors to build their consciousness and action for change.The powercube is a framework for analysing thelevels,spacesandformsof power, and theirinterrelationship. It is useful in exploring various aspects of power and how they interact with each other.Thelevelsdimension of the powercube refers to the differing layers of decision-making and position held on a vertical scale, incl uding thelocal,nationalandglobal.Thespacesdimension of the powercube refers to the potential arenas for partnership and action, including what we waulclosed,invitedandclaimedspaces.Theformsdimension refers to the ways in which power manifests itself, including itsvisible,hiddenand occultforms.The powercube can build on and be used to further explore theexpression of power power over, power to, power with, and power within. In the study, where the ascendant group have to bring about change for minority groups, expressions of power such as power-over by actors who are instructed to make changes. The power genus Lens will also help to identify partnerships which help to generate power-with across wider range of actors/ groups. The empirical work should highlight power-within as minority communities self-determine within the community to work towards improving their lives. In this respect, the power lens will illuminate sources of claimed space by the mobilisation of networks and supporters within the neighbourhood.John Gaventa takes invisible power further. In the powercube, invisible power need not be limited to intentional acts of thought control by the powerful, but can also be seen as self-reproducing social processes in which the thinking and behavior of the powerful and powerless alike are conditioned by permeating norms.Invisible power in the powercube can therefore emb line of achievement twain meanings of hegemony its structure and agency and points to the need for appropriate strategies for engaging with both forms of invisible or internalised power.This third face of power is likewise treated by VeneKlasen and Miller (2002) as a multidimensional barrier to effective citizen lodge, requiring well-designed evasive action for building self-awareness, self-esteem and power within to challenge ascendant norms such as gender and racial discrimination. Their practical methods are grounded in experiences of womens organising and empowerment, and recognises the directly links betwixt gendered norms in fellowship and the fragile condition of womens power within. Invisible power in this sense bridges agency and structure.The use of power analysis is effective in uncovering/ identifying resistence and compliance to changes rather than relying solely on the formal decision-making process.Critical locomote theory blood to other movementsCritical race theory builds on the insights of movements such as anti-racialism and radical feminism to which it owes a large debt. CRT also draws from certain European philosophers and theorists such as Steven Lukes, Antonia Gramsci, as well as from the American radical tradition exemplified by such figures as Sojourner Truth, W.E.B. Du Bois.race equality policies are developed by white commonwealth/the oppressors themselves.CRT also shares a sympathetic understanding of group empowerment.Racism/DiscriminationThe term race is problematicThe term race itself is problematic, a clear understan ding of the term race is paramount in understanding what is racialism and what encroachment this has on institutions and bulk.While the term race is used, Miles and Phizacklea (1982), have suggested that race should be dispensed with as an analytic category because the very use of the term reproduces and gives legitimacy to a distinction, existence of different human races, that has no scientific status or validity. Thus, an analytic category helps to perpetuate and legitimises the notion that race is a meaningful term (Miles and Phizacklea 1984).Although this may be the case at one level, to deny the significance of race this also obscures the ways in which it has real effects both in material and representational harm (look up this quote and amend) (Anthias 1990). While it is clear that races do not exist, in any objective scientific reality, it is clear that it does exist as a category /group which is reflected in political and popular discourse (Solomos). pass is a way of c onstructing differences (Anthias and Yuval-Davis, 1993, Cashmore and Troyna 1983, Gilroy, 1987). hie is a social category used in reference to divisions within a particular society. Cashmore and Troyna, suggest that race should be seen as a stigmatized identity forced on other passel. Similarly, Modood (1988) proposes that race relates to mode of oppression, how a group is categorised and subordinated.Race theorists such as Bonnet 1993, Gilroy 1987, Brah 1996 and others understand the notion of races as a social construct. As Bhavani argues the development of race as a spurious scientific category is a consequence of imperialism and colonization. It is this scientificism which informed, (and still informs), prevailing ideologies of biological high quality and middle-levelity among human beings on the basis of race. Jackson and Penrose (1993) argue that race is so rooted in the way we think about the world that we tend to take the category for granted. It is through the apparent naturalness and fastness that racist ideology works.Although the terms race and racial discrimination are themselves contradictory, the terms are useful as a way of categorizing the systematic mistreatment see by people from black and minority heathen communities and is used in this study. Donald and Rattansi (1992) suggest that instead of starting with the question as to whether race exists, it is more useful to ask how the category operates and how racial frames of reference are furnish and deployed, and with what consequences (p1).Race and ethnicity used interchangeablyThe terms race and ethnicity are very much used interchangeably, the terms are generally distinguished in that race evokes a biological and genetic referent while ethnicity refers to cultural and religious difference and kinship (Gunaratnam).The term ethnicity has been preferred in some lodge however, ethnicity is also linked to liberal notions of multi-ethnic societies and multi-culturalism which have a magnetic dip to obscure the force of racism with their celebrations of benign pluralism. Race theorists argue the markers and signifiers that racism uses need not be those of biology and physiognomy but can be those of language, territorial rights or nuance (Anthias p24). P.262 Rolston ethnicity slowly became term used to discuss the internal conflict in Northern Ireland not its level, inequalities, geomorphologic policies or action. p.257 Rolston use of postmodernist language in policies, work etc. there is not any mention of historical legacies such as Thus the unequal relationships, where the Irish and blacks were the crush by the British suppressers is ignored, in a way attempts are made to blank out the history .Racism works through oppression, and the form of oppression can be through discrimination, bias, bias and bigotry Bluemenfeld. Anti-racist theorists have drawn upon theories of oppression to examine how racism works, two key themes are prevalent. Firstly, there is the awareness is a system of oppression that not only stigmatises and affects the dominated group but also does psychic and ethical violence to the dominator group as well. The second theme is that racism functions not only through overt, conscious prejudice and discrimination but also through unconscious attitudes and behaviours of a society that presumes an unacknowledged but pervasive white cultural supremacy. The concept of unstarred and unacknowledged norms bolsters the power position of the dominant group. For instance, by group identities, the dominant group have positive value, while labelling the dominated groups as minorities.While in the UK, racism is popularly understood to be white people having power over black people, Rolston points to anti-Irish racism, which exists in the UK.Rolston argues there are similarities between black oppression and Irish national oppression. In both cases, the root cause of conflict and inequalities is not addressed but hidden crumb a ve il of multiculturalism which is articulate through the use of postmodernist language. Ethnicity, diversity, integration, tolerance, difference,cultural awareness is considered to be all that is needed.The study of racism has shown that it operates through systems of oppression. This often involves a dominant group who knowingly or unknowingly exploit and tie unfair advantage over members of subordinate or target groups (Johnson 2004). The dominant group also has economic, political or social, power over the subordinate group. (Essed and Goldberg 2002)suggests that racism is created through routine practices by people. They describe racism as both structure and process. It is structure because dominance and discrimination exists and is reproduced through the provision and application of rules, laws, and regulations and through access to and the allocation of resources. As a process, it exists in the everyday practice where it is reproduced and reinforced, adapting continually to t he ever-changing social, political and economic social conditions. It becomes prescript to the dominant group to see others as different and inferior particularly in relation to the colour of their skin (Bhavnani 2005). Everyday racism refers to forms of discrimination that manifest themselves in systematic, recurrent, long-familiar practices. Everyday racism is infused into familiar practices, it involves socialized attitudes and behaviour (Johnson 2004).Racism also serves to deny full participation in economic, social, political and cultural life by the essence that they posit (Anthias and Yuval-Davis 1992 (Gunaratnam 2003). However, there is not a unitary system of signification that can be labelled racist nor is there a unitary perpetrator or victim. This position requires addressing the ways in which the categories of difference and exclusion or the bias of class, gender and ethnicity incorporate processes of racialisation and are intertwined in producing racist discourses a nd outcomes Anthias (1992 (p3). overwhelm different levels that racism can operate from SCIP (Pincus).There more ethnicity and culture matters the more its characteristics are represented as relatively fixed, inherent within a group, transmitted from generation to generation, not just by culture and education, but by biological inheritance (Gunaratnam 2003). Cultural difference has largely displaced the notion of biological difference, as a basis for excluding or inferiorising, both in discourse and practice (Anthias and Yuval-Davis 1992) and recently faith has been used as categorising difference (Cantle 2007). Anthias and Yuval-Davis (1992) argue that exclusionary practices that are formulated on the categorization of individuals into groups whereby ethnic or racial origin are the criteria of access or plectron then they are endemically racist. They content that racism is not just about beliefs or statements, but about the ability to impose those beliefs or world-views as hegemo nic, and as a basis for denial of rights or equality. Racism is thus embedded in power relations of different types.Whilst it is known that racism is not only carried out by white people but also by black people, it should not be confused with the occasional(a) mistreatment experienced by whites, with the systematic and commit mistreatment experienced by people of colour (Anthias and Yuval-Davis 1992).The studies of oppressive behaviour, attitudes and structures have been studied by other oppressed categories such as feminists. Iris Young has oppression names a family of concepts and conditions, which can be divide into 5 categories maturation, marginalisation, powerlessness, cultural imperialism and violence (Young). bolshy explanations of racism is that class divide.In using the concept of race there is the danger of essentialising difference. There are difficulties and contradictions involved in working with the concept, as other concepts such as gender, class, sexuality, ablei sm also impact on how people live. Hall further argues that the interactive nature of racial or gender categories should be recognised as a complex process and a set of factors through which identity is formulated and contested. Constructions of race as of class, gender, sexuality, ethnicity interact, fuse with or displace each other in an on-going process of confrontation and negotiation (Hall, 1992).CultureInstitutional racismWhile institutional discrimination had been recognised by anti-racist to exist, it was as significant marker in racism in that institutional racism was publicly exposed and put on the political agenda in the Macpherson Inquiry published in 1999. (Back et al 2002).For the purposes of the Inquiry the concept of institutional racism which was applied was The collective failure of an organisation to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour, culture or ethnic origin. It can be seen or spy in processes, attitudes and behav iour which amount to discrimination through unwitting prejudice, ignorance, slight and racist stereotyping which disadvantage minority ethnic people 6.34Oppression can also be structural. Its causes are embedded in unquestioned norms, habits, and symbols in the assumptions underlying institutional rules and the collective consequences of following those rules. Some groups suffer as a consequence of often unconscious assumptions and reactions of well-meaning people in ordinary interactions, media and cultural stereotypes and structural features of bureaucratic hierarchies and market mechanisms in short, the normal processes of everyday life Young.Need to bring social structures and institutional contexts under evaluation as these are at least partly the cause of patterns of distribution of jobs or wealth. Young has noted three primary categories- decision-making structures and procedures, division of labour and culture (p22). Young argued that Justice should refer not only to distr ibution, but also to the institutional conditions necessary for the development and exercise of individual capacities and collective communication and cooperation (p37Power to omit The decision makers have the power to keep and control the topic on the agenda for discussion. Thus by not addressing issues which are pertinent to minority groups the decision makers collaborate in the discrimination.Impact of racism on BME and WHITE communitiesThe impact of racism in British society can be seen in the racialised and gendered forms of class exploitation either as homeworkers or in low-waged occupations on employers premises (Amrit Wilson).Race significantly affects black womens experiences of treatment in areas such as education, the health service and the labour market (Brah 1991). The influence how black people are represented in popular culture and the mass media (Modleski 1986)Points to include in definition of racismFrom the discussion above, the following points have been identif ied as appropriate to include in the working definition of the term racism which will be used in this study.Although the terms race and racism are themselves contradictory, the terms are useful as a way of categorizing the systematic mistreatment experienced by people from black and minority ethnic communities (BME).The systematic mistreatment experienced by people from BME communities is a result of institutionalized inequalities in the social structure. In denying people from BME communities, full participation in economic, political and social power, a self-perpetuating imbalance occurs. This imbalance consistently favours members of some ethnic and cultural groups at the expense of others. The consequences of this imbalance pervade all aspects of the social system and affect all facets of peoples lives.The systematic mistreatment of any group of people generates misinformation about them, which in turn becomes the explanation of or justification for continued mistreatment. Raci sm exists as a whole series of attitudes, assumptions, feelings and beliefs about people of colour and their cultures which are a mixture of misinformation, fear and ignorance. corporation and citizenshipParticipation of general population Big SocietyAlthough the concept of participation or community participation as it is often known, has been around since seventies?, in the UK it has re-emerged with renewed vigour in the last decade. Participation and exponentiation are terms used intermittently today. While there are differences in the meaning of these terms there is also a pack of overlap. These terms are associated with the importance of involving wider groups of people in decisions, services and design, it is often thought services should be client-led, user-led for the service to be more effective.Concerns about a democratic deficit in the accountability of public services, and an increasing view that lay citizens, members of the public and service users have an important piece to offer to the improvement of public-service provision, have given rise to a classification of new initiatives in local government, health and social care, and other field (see, e.g., Barnes, Newman and Sullivan, 2007).Race perspective Participation from citizens rights to citizens responsibilitiesParticipation allows people to be part of the democratic process, sense of belonging, and part of the decision making.However, the process of racial discrimination excludes black people from fully participating in society and being equal members in all the structures of the society. It is often the case, black peoples role is limited to being the clients service-users. Black people are excluded from participating to a greater extent.The multiculturalism policies did not address the deep rooted racism epidemic within the UK. It was merely about steel drums and samosas.As discussed earlier, racism excludes black people from fully participating in societies.